# Lanna Craft · ช่างล้านนา

> Lanna temple building, ornament and devotional art, drawn by arithmetic: build a viharn tier by tier, make a naga, pour one out of a makara's mouth, morph a chedi through seven centuries, find your birth-year chedi, fly a tung, lay gold leaf through a stencil, light a sattaphan, and read the words for every part.

- [English](https://motdang.net/sites/lanna-craft/)
- [ไทย](https://motdang.net/sites/lanna-craft/th/)
- Sections: #build #naga #stair #legends #history #chedi #year #devotion #tung #gold #candles #house #words #see #sources
- Test hooks: ?t=ISO time fixes the hero's clock; ?card draws the share-card frame
- Text CC BY 4.0, NaNoBotCo / Mot Dang. Code MIT. Photographs from Wikimedia Commons keep their own licences, credited on each.

## Words

- วิหาร · wihan /wí-hǎan/ — The hall that houses the main Buddha image. It has no boundary stones, which sets it apart from the ubosot. (Pali and Sanskrit vihāra, 'dwelling, monastery' (the dictionary marks it ป., ส.).)
- อุโบสถ / โบสถ์ · ubosot / bot /ʔù-boo-sòt · bòot/ — The ordination hall inside boundary stones (sima), where monks hold rites such as ordination and the fortnightly recitation of the rules. (Pali uposatha: upa- 'near' + √vas 'dwell' + -tha (analysis given on Thai Wikipedia). โบสถ์ is a clipped form (the Royal Institute dictionary).)
- หอไตร · ho trai /hɔ̌ɔ trai/ — A raised library building for palm-leaf scriptures. (หอ 'tower, hall' + ไตร, from Pali/Sanskrit ti-/tri- 'three', as in ไตรปิฎก (Tipitaka).)
- ปราสาท · prasat /praa-sàat/ — A building with stacked roof tiers, used for a king's residence or to house something sacred. (Sanskrit prāsāda, Pali pāsāda, 'palace, tall building' (Royal Institute dictionary: ส.; ป.).)
- ซุ้มโขง / ประตูโขง · sum khong / pratu khong /súm khǒoŋ · prà-tuu khǒoŋ/ — A tiered arched gateway into a temple or around a chedi, often five tiers high and covered in plant scrolls and animals. (ซุ้ม 'arch, bower' + โขง (Lanna word for the arch; origin not found) ; ประตู 'door'. The Royal Institute dictionary's โขง means 'foul-smelling', a different word.)
- ธรรมาสน์ · thammat /tham-mâat/ — The raised seat from which a monk preaches. (Sanskrit dharma/Pali dhamma 'teaching' + āsana 'seat' (the dictionary marks ส.).)
- หลังคาซ้อนชั้น / ซด · lang kha son chan / sot /lǎŋ-khaa sɔ́ɔn cháan · sót/ — A roof stepped down in tiers, with each step called a sot. (หลังคา 'roof' + ซ้อน 'to stack' + ชั้น 'tier'. ซด is the Lanna word for one step in the stack (origin not found; The Royal Institute dictionary's ซด is 'to sip', a different word).)
- ปีกนก · pik nok /pìik nók/ — The lower side roof under the gable, like a bird's wing. (ปีก 'wing' + นก 'bird'.)
- แผงแล · phaeng lae /phɛ̌ɛŋ lɛɛ/ — A Lanna wall panel set between the upper and lower roof, often pierced in patterns. (แผง 'panel' + แล (Lanna; origin not found).)
- ช่อฟ้า · cho fa /chɔ̂ɔ fáa/ — The ornament at the top end of the roof ridge, shaped like a bird's head with a crest. (ช่อ 'cluster, spray, tuft' (the Royal Institute dictionary) + ฟ้า 'sky'.)
- ป้านลม / ปั้นลม · pan lom /pâan lom · pân lom/ — The board along the gable edge of a roof that stops the wind lifting the roofing. In temples it carries the naga-bodied ornaments. (ลม 'wind'. The Royal Institute dictionary records both spellings as one word. The ป้าน/ปั้น syllable has no sourced etymon (the Royal Institute dictionary lists ป้าน 'blunt' and ปั้น 'to mould' as separate words); not confirmed.)
- ลำยอง · lamyong /lam-yɔɔŋ/ — The set of carved parts on the upper gable board: chofa, bai raka, naga-bodied nak sadung, hang hong and others. (Etymon not confirmed. The Royal Institute dictionary: (1) the upper section of the panlom of a prasat or viharn; (2) as an adjective, beautiful.)
- ใบระกา · bai raka /baj rá-kaa/ — The fin-like pieces set along the lamyong between the chofa and the hang hong. Thai Wikipedia says they stand for the wing feathers of Garuda. (ใบ 'leaf, blade' + ระกา (origin not found).)
- หางหงส์ · hang hong /hǎaŋ hǒŋ/ — The end piece of the lamyong at the lower end of the gable board. Forms include the naga-shaped, naga-turned, naga-head and hera types. (หาง 'tail' + หงส์, from Pali/Sanskrit haṃsa (Royal Institute dictionary: ป., ส.), the sacred goose or swan.)
- หางวัน · hang wan /hǎaŋ wan/ — A Lanna term with two uses in the sources: the finished end of the gable board, and the plain cone-shaped end of a stair balustrade. (หาง 'tail' + วัน (Lanna; origin not found).)
- นาคสะดุ้ง · nak sadung /nâak sà-dûŋ/ — The naga-bodied board that runs down from the high end of the gable to the hang hong on each side. (นาค (Pali/Sanskrit nāga) + สะดุ้ง 'to start, flinch' (the Royal Institute dictionary).)
- ตัวเหงา · tua ngao /tua ŋǎo/ — The curled-back end of a barge board that looks like the first scroll of a kanok pattern. (ตัว 'figure' + เหงา. The Royal Institute dictionary has เหงา as a second word meaning 'the first kanok motif'; เหงาปั้นลม is 'the end of the panlom bent back like the first kanok'.)
- หน้าบัน / หน้าแหนบ · na ban / na naep /nâa ban · nâa nɛ̀ɛp/ — The triangular wall that closes the front or back of a gable roof. (หน้า 'face' + บัน; หน้าแหนบ is the Lanna word (origin not found). The Royal Institute dictionary: หน้าบัน = จั่ว 'gable' of a prasat, bot, viharn.)
- โก่งคิ้ว · kong khio /kòoŋ khíw/ — The carved bracket panel under the gable, curved like an eyebrow. (โก่ง 'curved, bowed' + คิ้ว 'eyebrow' (the Royal Institute dictionary).)
- ม้าต่างไหม · ma tang mai /máa tàaŋ mǎj/ — The Lanna roof frame in which posts and tie-beams pass the roof load down to the columns like a load slung over a pack horse. (ม้า 'horse' + ต่าง 'a carrier hung either side of a pack animal; to carry a load' (the Royal Institute dictionary) + ไหม 'silk'.)
- หูช้าง · hu chang /hǔu cháaŋ/ — The triangular wooden bracket under the eaves, shaped like an elephant's ear. (หู 'ear' + ช้าง 'elephant'.)
- นาคทันต์ / คันทวย · nak than / khan thuai /nâak-khá-than · khan thuaj/ — The carved brace under the eaves that holds up the end of the roof timber. It is sometimes made as a naga. (นาค (Royal Institute dictionary: serpent, and also Pali nāga 'elephant') + ทันต์ (Pali/Sanskrit danta, 'tooth'). The Royal Institute dictionary has นาคทนต์ = 'tusk'. คันทวย is the general word. Spoken Lanna reading not confirmed.)
- ขื่อ · khue /khɯ̀ɯ/ — The tie-beam across the top of the columns. (Thai word; no Indic etymon.)
- แป · pae /pɛɛ/ — The purlin, a roof timber that carries the rafters or the roofing. (Thai word; no Indic etymon.)
- เสา · sao /sǎo/ — A column. (Thai word; no Indic etymon.)
- มกร · makon / makara /má-kɔɔn/ — A sea creature of Indian myth, shown with an elephant-like head and a fish or crocodile body. At stairs it holds a naga in its mouth. (Pali and Sanskrit makara (Royal Institute dictionary: ป., ส.). The Royal Institute dictionary gives readings [มะกอน, มะกอระ-, มะกะระ-].)
- นาค · nak /nâak/ — The crested serpent of myth, keeper of water. It guards stairs, lines roofs and shelters the Buddha. (Pali and Sanskrit nāga. The Royal Institute dictionary: (1) the large crested serpent of myth; (3) an elephant; (5) one who is excellent, and a man preparing for ordination.)
- ตัวลวง · tua luang /tua luaŋ/ — A Lanna composite beast with a naga body, a long trunk, deer antlers and a bird's wing. It is the usual naga on Lanna stairs. (ตัว 'figure' + ลวง, the Lanna word for the naga-like beast (Phensupha Sukkhata Chai-in). Art historians call it ปัญจรูป: Pali/Sanskrit pañca 'five' + rūpa 'form'. The Royal Institute dictionary's ลวง ๒, a year-number word, is a different word.)
- ตัวมอม · tua mom /tua mɔɔm/ — A lion-like guardian beast of northern temples, not the same animal as the makara. (ตัว 'figure' + มอม (the Royal Institute dictionary มอม ๒: an animal of myth, mostly a lion shape, often tattooed).)
- สิงห์ · sing /sǐŋ/ — The lion of myth, set as a guardian at the front of a temple or on a base. (Pali sīha, Sanskrit siṃha (Royal Institute dictionary: ป., ส.).)
- หงส์ · hong /hǒŋ/ — A bird of myth, the mount of Brahma, shown as a swan-like goose. (Pali and Sanskrit haṃsa (Royal Institute dictionary: ป., ส.).)
- เสาหงส์ · sao hong /sǎo hǒŋ/ — A pole topped with a hong bird, set in front of a temple. (เสา 'pole' + หงส์.)
- กินนร / กินรี · kinnon / kinnari /kin-nɔɔn · kin-ná-rii/ — A half-bird, half-human being of myth. The male is kinnon, the female kinnari. (Pali/Sanskrit kinnara, kinnarī. The Royal Institute dictionary: a being half human and half bird.)
- ราชวัตร · ratchawat /râat-chá-wát/ — A low openwork fence set up to mark a ceremony area, with small umbrellas at the ends of its panels. (ราช (Sanskrit rāja 'king') + วัตร/วัติ (origin not found). The Royal Institute dictionary spells it ราชวัติ and has no entry for ราชวัตร. Reading is the customary one.)
- บันไดนาค · bandai nak /ban-dai nâak/ — A stair with a naga along each side as a balustrade. (บันได 'stair' + นาค.)
- เจดีย์ · chedi /cee-dii/ — A solid tower, usually with a pointed top, that holds relics or sacred things. (Pali cetiya, Sanskrit caitya, 'shrine, sacred monument' (Royal Institute dictionary: ป. เจติย; ส. ไจตฺย).)
- ฐานปัทม์ / บัวคว่ำ บัวหงาย · than pat / bua khwam bua ngai /thǎan pàt · bua khwâm · bua ŋǎaj/ — The lotus-shaped base mouldings of a chedi: a downturned lotus band, a bead band (บัวลูกแก้ว), and an upturned lotus band. (ฐาน 'base' (Pali ṭhāna; The Royal Institute dictionary) + ปัทม์ (Sanskrit padma 'lotus'; The Royal Institute dictionary gives it as a name of the lotus) ; บัว 'lotus' + คว่ำ 'face down' / หงาย 'face up'.)
- ปล้องไฉน · plong chanai /plɔ̂ɔŋ chà-nǎj/ — The ringed spire of a chedi, a stack of disks that gets narrower toward the top. (ปล้อง 'segment, joint of bamboo' (the Royal Institute dictionary) + ไฉน (origin not found; The Royal Institute dictionary's ไฉน is 'how' and a kind of oboe).)
- ฉัตร · chat /chàt/ — A tiered umbrella of honour, set at the top of a chedi. (Sanskrit chatra, Pali chatta, 'umbrella' (the Royal Institute dictionary).)
- ระฆัง (องค์ระฆัง) · rakhang (ong rakhang) /rá-khaŋ · ʔoŋ rá-khaŋ/ — The bell-shaped body of a chedi. (ระฆัง 'bell' (Royal Institute dictionary: shaped like a cut gourd) ; องค์ 'body of a sacred thing'.)
- ทองจังโก · thong changko /thɔɔŋ caŋ-koo/ — Thin brass sheet, lacquered and gilded, that wraps a chedi against weather. (ทอง 'gold, brass' + จังโก (Royal Institute dictionary: ถิ่น-พายัพ).)
- ลายคำ · lai kham /laaj kham/ — Gold patterns laid over red or black lacquer, found on pillars, walls and beams of Lanna halls. (ลาย 'pattern' + คำ 'gold' (Northern Thai; The Royal Institute dictionary: คำ ๑ = ทองคำ).)
- ลายรดน้ำ · lai rot nam /laaj rót náam/ — A Thai lacquer art in which gold leaf is pressed on a drawn pattern over lacquer and the rest is washed away with water. (ลาย 'pattern' + รด 'to pour' + น้ำ 'water'.)
- ลายปูนปั้น · lai pun pan /laaj puun pân/ — Patterns modelled in wet lime plaster, used on chedis, gateways, stairs and gables. (ลาย 'pattern' + ปูน 'lime plaster' + ปั้น 'to model' (the Royal Institute dictionary).)
- กระจกจืน / ประดับกระจก · krachok chuen / pradap krachok /krà-còk cɯɯn · prà-dàp krà-còk/ — Thin lead-backed glass, cut with scissors and set in plaster or wood. It gives soft, muted colours. (กระจก 'glass, mirror' (the Royal Institute dictionary) ; จืน, Lanna for 'lead' (Fine Arts Department) ; แก้ว in the north means both glass and mirror ; ประดับ 'to decorate' (the Royal Institute dictionary).)
- ลายพันธุ์พฤกษา · lai phan phruksa /laaj phan phrɯ́k-sǎa/ — Plant and vine patterns. (ลาย + พันธุ์ (Pali/Sanskrit bandhu, 'kin, stock'; The Royal Institute dictionary: พวกพ้อง เชื้อสาย) + พฤกษา 'tree' (the Royal Institute dictionary). The Sanskrit vṛkṣa behind พฤกษา is the standard derivation but is not shown in the the Royal Institute dictionary entry.)
- กนก · kanok /kà-nòk/ — A flame-like scroll pattern of Thai ornament. (Pali/Sanskrit kanaka 'gold' (the Royal Institute dictionary). In art, กนก is also a spelling of กระหนก, the flame-like scroll pattern.)
- ตุง · tung /tuŋ/ — A long hanging banner offered at temples and used in rites. It is cloth, paper, wood or metal. (Northern word for 'flag' (Royal Institute dictionary: ถิ่น-พายัพ).)
- ตุงกระด้าง · tung krading /tuŋ krà-dâaŋ/ — A rigid tung of carved wood or metal, often carved with the twelve zodiac animals, set up in pairs on both sides of the path to the viharn. (ตุง + กระด้าง 'stiff, rigid' (Thai adjective).)
- ช่อ (ตุงช่อ) · cho (tung cho) /chɔ̂ɔ · tuŋ chɔ̂ɔ/ — A small paper flag cut in patterns, hung in rites such as life-extending and sending off bad luck. (ช่อ 'cluster, bunch' (the Royal Institute dictionary). ตุงช่อ is also written ตุงจ้อ.)
- สัตตภัณฑ์ · sattaphan /sàt-tà-phan/ — A stepped candle stand in front of the main Buddha image, which anyone may light. (Pali satta 'seven' + bhaṇḍa 'goods, things' (Thai Wikipedia).)
- ต้นผึ้ง · ton phueng /tôn phɯ̂ŋ/ — An offering stem of wax flowers, made by dipping carved moulds in melted beeswax. (ต้น 'tree, stem' + ผึ้ง 'bee' (here 'beeswax').)
- ขันดอก · khan dok /khǎn dɔ̀ɔk/ — A bowl of flowers, candles and incense carried to the temple on holy days. (ขัน 'bowl, vessel' (the Royal Institute dictionary) + ดอก 'flower'.)
- โคม · khom /khoom/ — A lantern. Lanna lanterns hang at chedis and in viharns, and are carried, floated or let off at Yi Peng. (Thai word for a lantern (the Royal Institute dictionary).)
- กระดิ่ง · kradiang /krà-dìŋ/ — A small bell. Temple eaves carry rows of them, each with a flat leaf-shaped clapper that the wind swings. (Thai word (the Royal Institute dictionary).)
- พระเจ้า · phra chao /phrá câaw/ — In the north, the usual word for a Buddha image. (พระ + เจ้า 'lord'. The Royal Institute dictionary: (1) the Buddha, a Buddha image, or a supreme deity; (2) a king.)
- พระสิงห์ · phra sing /phrá sǐŋ/ — The common short name of the Phra Buddha Sihing image. Also the name of a style of Chiang Saen Buddha image (Singh 1, 2 and 3). (พระ + สิงห์ (Pali sīha, Sanskrit siṃha, 'lion'). Thai Wikipedia says tradition has the Phra Buddha Sihing made by King Sihala of Sri Lanka.)
- พระเจ้าทันใจ · phra chao than chai /phrá câaw than-cai/ — A Buddha image made in one day, from after midnight to before sunset the next day, believed to grant wishes quickly. (พระเจ้า + ทัน 'in time, as fast as' (the Royal Institute dictionary) + ใจ 'heart, mind'.)
- กาแล · kalae /kaa lɛɛ/ — The pair of carved boards that cross at the top of a gable on a Lanna house. (Lanna กะแล๋ 'cross' (Thai Wikipedia). The Royal Institute dictionary marks กาแล as a northern word.)
- เรือนกาแล · ruean kalae /rɯɯan kaa-lɛɛ/ — A Lanna timber house with crossed gable boards, usually a twin house facing north or south. (เรือน 'house' + กาแล.)
- หำยนต์ · ham yon /hǎm yon/ — A carved wooden board over the bedroom door of a Lanna house, thought to guard the room. (Two explanations on Thai Wikipedia: หำ (Isan/northern word for the testicles, the Royal Institute dictionary) + ยนต์ (Pali yanta, Sanskrit yantra, 'device, talisman'); or a contraction of หมฺมิย + อนุต, 'the bare top of a prasat'.)
- ร้านน้ำ / ฮ้านน้ำ · ran nam / han nam /ráan náam · háan náam/ — A shelf for the water pot at the head of the house stair, with a small roof if it stands in the open. (ร้าน 'raised place, shelf, trellis' (the Royal Institute dictionary) + น้ำ 'water'. The ฮ้าน spelling is the northern one; its reading is taken from the spelling.)
- เติ๋น · toen /tə́ən/ — The raised, roofed open space in front of the bedroom, used for work, visitors and rites. (Lanna word; origin not found. The reading is that of the spelling in Standard Thai, and the northern tone differs.)
- ชาน · chan /chaan/ — The open platform outside the eaves, below the level of the เติ๋น. (Thai word, the Royal Institute dictionary: the floor outside the eaves.)
- ฝาไหล · fa lai /fǎa lǎj/ — Wall boards set in grooves so that they slide open and shut. (ฝา 'wall panel' + ไหล 'to slide'.)

## Years

- c. 662 (date in the chronicles): The chronicles say a Mon queen, Camadevi, came north from Lavo (Lopburi) to rule Haripunchai at Lamphun. Historians place the start of the city later, around 750 on one estimate and in the 11th or 12th century on others. Wat Chamadevi, also called Wat Kukut, keeps the stepped chedi of that Mon world: a square laterite pyramid of five tiers with 60 Buddha images in niches. No builder's date is proved. A Mon stone inscription records a large restoration after an earthquake in 1218.
- 1292 (other sources: 1281 or 1283): Mangrai, king of Ngoenyang, takes Haripunchai (Lamphun) and joins it to his new kingdom of Lan Na. Wikipedia pages disagree on the year: 1292 on the Haripunchai page, 1281 on the Lan Na page, and 1283 for the account in the Lanna chronicles. The art historian Hiram Woodward is cited as calling Haripunchai the one place where a line of late-Dvaravati Mon speakers passes into the Tai kingdom centred on Chiang Mai.
- 1296 (Wiang Kum Kam c. 1286–87; Wat Chiang Man 1297): Mangrai builds Wiang Kum Kam beside the Ping River around 1286 or 1287. Floods keep coming, so he founds Chiang Mai. A stone stele of 1581 at Wat Chiang Man gives the founding as 12 April 1296 at 4 a.m. Wat Chiang Man, built in 1297 on the site of a Lawa fortified town, is the city's first temple. Its Chedi Chang Lom stands on a square base with the front halves of 15 life-size elephants coming out of the wall.
- 1345 (Phra Buddha Sihing arrives 1400): King Phayu builds Wat Phra Singh in Chiang Mai to hold the ashes of his father, Khamfu. In 1400 King Saenmueangma receives the Phra Buddha Sihing image, and the temple takes its name from it. More than one image carries that title. The Bangkok image is credited to Sri Lanka, and Thai Wikipedia says the Sihing images at Chiang Mai and Nakhon Si Thammarat are in the Chiang Saen 'Singh 1' style.
- c. 1384 (sources give 1383 to 1386; naga stairs 1547): King Kue Na has a chedi built on Doi Suthep for a relic of the Buddha. English Wikipedia gives 1383, Thai Wikipedia gives BE 1927 (1384), and another English page gives 1386. In 1547 the monk Maha Yanmongkhonphot is credited with the two naga balustrades of the long stair, which Thai Wikipedia counts as 306 steps and English Wikipedia as 309.
- 1434: Lightning strikes the octagonal chedi of Wat Pa Yia in Chiang Rai and splits it open. Inside is a Buddha image covered in stucco. The abbot later sees green under a flaked patch on the nose, strips the plaster, and finds a figure carved from green stone. This is the Emerald Buddha. The temple becomes Wat Phra Kaew.
- 1476 (BE 2019): In the reign of Tilokaraj, the Wihan Phra Phut is built at Wat Phra That Lampang Luang as the temple's first viharn. It began as an open hall with hanging half-walls (ฝาย้อย) and a roof frame of the ม้าต่างไหม type, which Thai Wikipedia calls a Lanna carpenters' idea. It was restored in 1802, when brick was added. The main hall, Wihan Luang, was altered in 1923 so that its gable and roof ornaments follow the central Thai pattern.
- 1477 (Wat Chet Yot begun 1455): King Tilokaraj sends monks to Bagan to study the Mahabodhi temple and begins Wat Chet Yot in 1455. The Jinakalamali chronicle records a large sanctuary there in 1476. In 1477 a council to review the Tipitaka is held, often called the eighth Buddhist council. The central building has seven spires and 70 stucco devas on its walls.
- 1545: An earthquake brings down the top 30 metres of the great chedi of Wat Chedi Luang. Before the collapse it stood 82 metres high on a base 54 metres across, the largest building in Lan Na. The Emerald Buddha had been placed in its eastern niche in 1468. A reconstruction in the early 1990s, paid for by UNESCO and the Japanese government, is criticised by some because the new parts are said to be in Central Thai rather than Lanna style.
- 1558: Mekuti, the Shan king of Lan Na, surrenders to the Burmese king Bayinnaung on 2 April 1558. Lan Na becomes a Burmese vassal. Burmese rule, with breaks, lasts until the Siamese-backed capture of Chiang Mai in 1775. Thai Wikipedia counts these two centuries as a period of decline in Lanna architecture, and notes that surviving Lanna wall paintings of the time, in Lampang, show Burmese influence.
- 1775 (Kawila re-enters Chiang Mai 1796–97): On 15 January 1775 Kawila of Lampang, with Siamese help, takes Chiang Mai and ends about 200 years of Burmese rule. The city is left empty for years. Kawila spends almost twenty years gathering people, based at Pasang, repairs the walls in 1795, and enters Chiang Mai in 1796 on Thai Wikipedia's reckoning (English Wikipedia says February 1797). The temples of the next century, such as Wat Ton Kwen and the Viharn Lai Kham, are built under his line.
- 1815–1821: The Viharn Lai Kham is built at Wat Phra Singh in Chiang Mai under Thammalangka. It is small, about 30 metres by 8, with a prasat shrine attached at the back. Gold leaf on lacquer covers the main pillars and parts of the timber frame. Murals, probably painted in the 1863 restoration, tell the tale of Sang Thong on one side of the Buddha and Suwannahongse on the other. The end of its roof ridge is a bird-beak chofa joined to a naga-headed hang hong.
- 1858 (temple begun c. 1852): The viharn of Wat Ton Kwen in Hang Dong is built, in the reign of Kawilorot Suriyawong, with the craftsman monk Kruba In. The temple began about 1852 as a resting place on the route of the annual procession of the Si Chom Thong relic. The Association of Siamese Architects named the viharn an outstanding conservation building in 1989. Its stair has two makara, one above the other, in the elaborate arrangement that the art writer Phensupha Sukkhata Chai-in singles out.
- 1867–1874 (Wat Phumin founded c. 1596): In Nan, the cruciform hall of Wat Phumin, first built around 1596, is restored under Anantaworarittidet, and the Tai Lue painter Nan Bua Phan paints its murals. The best known is the whispering couple, ปู่ม่านย่าม่าน. A village temple of Tai Lue settlers, Wat Nong Bua at Tha Wang Pha, has a plain rectangular viharn of about 1862 with murals in the same style as Wat Phumin.
- 1827–1893: Shan and Burmese builders of the teak era put up their own kind of temple in the north. Wat Chong Kham in Mae Hong Son is built in 1827 by the town's first ruler with Shan craftsmen. Wat Pa Pao, founded in 1883 beside the moat in Chiang Mai for the Shan community, has a bell-shaped chedi on a triple-tiered square base with four qilin at the corners, and a hall with a seven-tier pyatthat roof. In Lampang, Wat Si Chum is built in 1893 by wealthy Burmese residents, in the years of the British teak concessions.
- 1920s; road 1934–35: The monk Khruba Siwichai, who began restoring Wat Phra Singh in Chiang Mai in the early 1920s and rebuilt its Viharn Luang in 1924, leads the building of the road up Doi Suthep. It is later named Siwichai Road. English Wikipedia counts more than a hundred temples, roads and bridges among his projects. He clashed with the Siamese church authorities over ordaining monks without licence.
- 1997: Chalermchai Kositpipat, a national artist from Chiang Rai, opens Wat Rong Khun, the White Temple, to visitors. He rebuilt the run-down temple at his own cost in white plaster and mirrored glass chips. Thai Wikipedia says work on the present ordination hall began on 3 February 1996. In Chiang Mai, Wat Sri Suphan, founded around 1500, has a new ordination hall clad in silver, nickel and aluminium panels worked by the city's silversmiths.

## Sources

- Wikipedia (Thai): นาค: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84
- SuttaCentral: Vinaya, Mahākhandhaka: https://suttacentral.net/pli-tv-kd1/en/brahmali
- The Standard: https://thestandard.co/?p=208369
- Royal Institute Dictionary (ราชบัณฑิตยสภา): https://dictionary.orst.go.th/
- CMU Museum of Ancient Lanna Houses: https://accl.cmu.ac.th/Museum/detail/3
- Phensupha Sukkhata Chai-in, Matichon Weekly (2020): https://today.line.me/th/v2/article/2qZ31a
- Wikipedia (Thai): วัดพระธาตุดอยสุเทพราชวรวิหาร: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3
- Wikipedia: Wat Phra That Doi Suthep: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Phra_That_Doi_Suthep
- Wikipedia (Thai): โยนกนครไชยบุรีราชธานีศรีช้างแส่น: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%8A%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%99
- Wikipedia (Thai): ตำนานสิงหนวัติ: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4
- Wikipedia (Thai): พระพุทธสิหิงค์: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B9%8C
- CMU Architecture knowledge manual, NRCT (DKM): https://www.dkmmap.nrct.go.th/dkmmap-2021/dkm-dm/upload_manual/61-040.pdf
- Wikipedia (Thai): เสาหงส์: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C
- Wikipedia (Thai): วัดกู่เต้า: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%88%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2
- Wikipedia: Wat Ku Tao: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Ku_Tao
- Wikipedia: Haripuñjaya: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haripu%C3%B1jaya
- Wikipedia: Lan Na: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lan_Na
- Wikipedia (Thai): พระยากาวิละ: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B0
- Wikipedia: Kawila: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawila
- Wikipedia: Wat Chedi Luang: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Chedi_Luang
- Wikipedia: Wat Phra Kaew, Chiang Rai: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Phra_Kaew,_Chiang_Rai
- Wikipedia: Wat Rong Khun: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Rong_Khun
- Wikipedia (Thai): วัดร่องขุ่น: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%99
- Wikipedia: Camadevi: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camadevi
- Wikipedia: Wat Chamadevi: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Chamadevi
- Wikipedia (Thai): วัดกู่กุด: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%94
- Wikipedia: Wiang Kum Kam: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiang_Kum_Kam
- Wikipedia: Wat Phra That Hariphunchai: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Phra_That_Hariphunchai
- Wikipedia (Thai): วัดพระธาตุหริภุญชัยวรมหาวิหาร: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3
- Wikipedia: Wat Chiang Man: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Chiang_Man
- Wikipedia: Wat Phra Singh: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Phra_Singh
- Wikipedia: Wat Chet Yot: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Chet_Yot
- Wikipedia: Khruba Siwichai: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khruba_Siwichai
- Wikipedia: Wat Pa Pao, Mueang Chiang Mai: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Pa_Pao,_Mueang_Chiang_Mai
- Wikipedia (Thai): วัดจองคำ (จังหวัดแม่ฮ่องสอน): https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B3_(%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AE%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99)
- Wikipedia (Thai): วัดศรีชุม (จังหวัดลำปาง): https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A1_(%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87)
- Wikipedia: Wat Ming Mueang, Chiang Rai: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Ming_Mueang,_Chiang_Rai
- Wikipedia: Wat Ton Kwen: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Ton_Kwen
- Wikipedia (Thai): วัดต้นเกว๋น: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%8B%E0%B8%99
- Wikipedia (Thai): วัดภูมินทร์: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C
- Wikipedia (Thai): ปู่ม่านย่าม่าน: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99
- Wikipedia: Wat Phumin: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Phumin
- Wikipedia (Thai): วัดหนองบัว (อำเภอท่าวังผา): https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A7_(%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%97%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9C%E0%B8%B2)
- Wikipedia: Wat Sri Suphan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Sri_Suphan
- Wikipedia (Thai): วิหาร: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3
- Wikipedia: Mucalinda: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucalinda
- Wikipedia (Thai): ตักบาตรเทโว: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A7
- ThaiJO: Thai Khadi Studies (Silpakorn, 2025): https://so06.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/thaikhadijournal/article/download/291200/192229/1300491
- Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre folktales: https://folktales.sac.or.th/folktale-details.php?id=142
- Chiang Rai Focus: https://www.chiangraifocus.com/61/
- Komchadluek (Nation), Ekkapong Praditpong (2011): https://www.komchadluek.net/amulet/116641
- madchima.org forum (repeating Silpa-mag, Khaosod): https://www.madchima.org/forum/index.php?topic=28284.0
- Wikipedia: Yonok: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yonok
- Wikipedia (Thai): มอม (สัตว์): https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1_(%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%8C)
- Wikipedia (Thai): มกร: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3
- Wikipedia (Thai): ลำยอง: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87
- Wikipedia (Thai): ประตูโขง: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%87
- Wikipedia (Thai): หน้าบัน: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99
- Wikipedia (Thai): คันทวย: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A2
- Wikipedia (Thai): ศิลปะล้านนา: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2
- Wikipedia (Thai): วัดพระธาตุลำปางหลวง: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%87
- Fine Arts Department: lead glass in the north (2014): https://www.finearts.go.th/storage/contents/detail_file/s8KU98xmWVojKLrsuZ5EgAhhI30yCsfmhn1sQ0Uj.pdf
- Wikipedia (Thai): ตุง: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%87
- Wikipedia (Thai): สัตตภัณฑ์: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%91%E0%B9%8C
- Wikipedia (Thai): สัตบริภัณฑ์: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%91%E0%B9%8C
- Naresuan University journal (2022): https://www.journal.nu.ac.th/JCDR/article/download/Vol-15-No-3-2022-94-119/2069
- ThaiJO: MCU Journal of Peace Studies (2019): https://so03.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/journal-peace/article/download/106616/125542
- Wikipedia (Thai): พระเจ้าทันใจ: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%88%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%88
- Wikipedia (Thai): วัดบวกครกหลวง: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%87
- ThaiJO: article on Lanna lai kham (2022): https://so09.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/tmwj/article/download/585/374/3619
- KTC travel: twelve birth-year chedis: https://www.ktc.co.th/article/travel-stories/thailand/th/phra-that-of-12-star
- Thai Rath: https://www.thairath.co.th/lifestyle/travel/1980396
- Wikipedia (Thai): เถาะ: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%96%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%B0
- ThaiJO: MCU article on Lanna chedis (2022): https://so06.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/panya-thjo/article/download/258200/174142/963325
- Wikipedia (Thai): เรือนไทยภาคเหนือ: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD
- Royal Park Rajapruek: https://www.royalparkrajapruek.org/Knowledge/view/398
- Wikipedia: Kalae house: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalae_house
- Wikipedia (Thai): หำยนต์: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C
- ThaiJO: kalae-house terms (2026): https://so01.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/FaNJ/article/view/285701
- Wikipedia: Wat Umong: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Umong
- Wikipedia: Wat Phra Sing, Chiang Rai: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Phra_Sing,_Chiang_Rai
- Wikipedia (Thai): กุน: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%99
- Wikipedia (Thai): ปีนักษัตร: https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3